Relative Clauses
What are relative clauses?
Relative clauses modify a noun or pronoun in the sentence. We use relative clauses to make it clear which person or thing we are talking about or to give more information about them. Relative clauses usually start with a relative pronoun or a relative adverb. In the examples below, the relative clauses are underlined.
We know a lot of people who live in the countryside.
The book that I bought yesterday is the writer’s latest novel.
I saw a man whose phone was stolen.
He comes from a country where people have no idea of secular culture.
Relative Pronouns – Definition & Examples
Relative pronouns are words that can connect a relative clause with the main clause before it. Words like who, whom, which, that, and whose are relative pronouns. We can also use the adverbs when, where, and why to introduce a relative clause after words that refer to time, place, and after the word reason.
Spring is the time when we see a lot of tourists here.
This is the city where I lived for 5 years.
We didn’t know the reason why she decided to start a new job.
Choosing the Right Relative Pronoun
1. The relative pronouns who and whom are used to refer to people, and which refers to things.
2. We use who as the subject of the verb in a relative clause and whom as the object, while the pronoun which can be both subject and object.
3. Whose is a possessive relative pronoun and is used in the same way as possessive adjectives his, her, etc., before a noun.
Note that in an informal style, we can use who instead of whom as the object of the verb in the relative clause. Also, we can use that instead of who and which.
| Subject | Object | Possessive | |
| for people | Who (or that) | Whom/ who (or that) | whose |
| for things | Which (or that) | Which (or that) | whose |
The man who/that is wearing a suit is my uncle. (the pronoun is the subject and refers to a person)
Who was the woman whom/who/that you were speaking to? (the pronoun is the object and refers to a person)
The car which/that moved fast was an Italian one. (the pronoun is the subject and refers to a thing)
This is the book which/that Sam gave me last week. (the pronoun is the object and refers to a thing)
This is the woman whose cat is missing. (the cat is for the woman)
Note that you should not use a pronoun (he, she, it, them, etc.) inside a relative clause to refer to the noun that is already named in the main clause. The relative pronoun (who / which / that / etc.) already stands for that noun inside the clause.
The boy who lives next door is my close friend. (NOT … who he lives next door …)
I have bought the shoes which we saw yesterday. (NOT … which we saw them yesterday.)
Sara has finally found the flat that she has been looking for. (NOT … that she has been looking for it.)
Note that a relative clause is never in question form.
Do you know why he is angry? (NOT … why is he angry?)
I don’t exactly know where she comes from. (NOT … where does she come from.)
Note that the pronoun which can also refer to a whole clause before it. This is not possible with other relative pronouns.
Richie was absent for the second time this week, which made me really worried.
He has been appointed as the chairman of the company, which is a great achievement for a person his age.
Omitting the Relative Pronoun
If the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, we can drop the pronoun.
The boy who/whom I know is a shopkeeper.
➜ The boy I know is a shopkeeper.
The book whic/that we are studying this year is so difficult.
➜ The book we are studying this year is so difficult.
Defining vs Non-defining Relative Clauses
Defining Relative Clauses
Defining (also known as identifying or restrictive) clauses give information that is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Without them, it is not clear which person or thing we are talking about. This type of clauses is frequently used in both speaking and writing.
The sources which he refers to are not yet verified.
Is there anyone that I can talk to about my problem?
They are one of the several families whose houses were completely destroyed in the earthquake.
Non-defining Relative Clauses
Non-defining (also known as non-identifying or non-restrictive) relative clauses do not provide essential information. In fact, they only give more information about the people or thing that we have already identified. It is possible to remove non-defining relative clauses without causing confusion to the reader or listener. Note that this type of clause is commonly used in writing and is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas on either side.
Jerald, who has a very good sense of humour, entertained the guests with his funny stories.
Japanese cars, which are often known for their durability and reasonable prices, have a large share of our market.
The former president, whom you see a lot on the media these days, will probably run for the office for a second term.
Note that the pronoun what does not refer to a noun or pronoun before it. It acts as noun + relative pronoun together, and has a similar meaning to ‘the thing which’. The clause that comes after ‘what‘ can act as subject, object, or complement after be verbs.
They have not delivered what they promised. (used as the object)
What makes him so special is his careful attention to the detail. (used as the subject)
That wasn’t really what we had hoped for. (used as the complement)
Using Prepositions With Relative Clauses
Note that in formal or written English, prepositions often appear before the relative pronouns rather than the end of the relative clauses. This is especially common with whom and which but not with that.
He remained loyal to the people with whom he had grown up. (= … the people (that) he had grown up with)
This is not the kind of place in which they can study. (= … place (that) they can study in)
The evidence on which he had relied did not persuade the jury. (= … evidence (that) he had relied on)
Advanced Tips!
Note that after determiners (some, all, most, many, none, etc.), superlative adjectives, numbers or words that show order (First, second, third, last, etc.), and other expressions that indicate the quantity we commonly use of whom, of which, and of whose. This structure is used in non-defining clauses.
Over 50 people, most of whom I had previously met, were invited to the annual meeting
Quite a number of activists, many of whom used to hold key positions in the government, are now under arrest.
There was an old bicycle in the garage, both of whose tyres were flat.
They have so far introduced 3 new SUVs, none of which has managed to repeat the success of their first model.
University graduates, the most successful of whom often choose to immigrate, are barely satisfied with career opportunities.
Note that it is possible to replace whose + noun with noun + of which or that … + noun of to create a possessive sense when the noun refers to a thing (but not normally to a person).
This doesn’t look like the hous whose pictures we have seen!
This doesn’t look like the house pictures of which we have seen! (more formal)
This doesn’t look like the house that we have seen pictures of! (less formal)
Note that after the word time and some other common words referring to time, we can drop when or use that instead.
This is not the first time (that) we have seen them here.
June is the month (that) many couples choose for their wedding.
I haven’t read a book from the day (that) I left school.
Note that after the words place, somewhere, anywhere, everywhere, and nowhere we can drop where or use that instead.
Back in his teens, he didn’t even have a place (that) he would call home.
There is absolutely nowhere (that) you can find better coffee in the town.